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Updated: June 26, 2025
These Virginian coal-measures are composed of grits, sandstones, and shales, exactly resembling those of older or primary date in America and Europe, and they rival, or even surpass, the latter in the richness and thickness of the coal-seams. One of these, the main seam, is in some places from 30 to 40 feet thick, composed of pure bituminous coal.
Never mind about that, my masters: if you want varied instincts in which to seek the source of the complex by means of the simple, it is not necessary to search the foliations of the coal-seams and the successive layers of the rocks, those archives of the prehistoric world; the present day affords to contemplation an inexhaustible treasury realizing perhaps everything that can emerge from the limbo of possibility.
Near Pekin there are beds of coal 95 feet thick, which afford ample provision for the needs of the city. In the mountainous districts of western China the area over which carboniferous strata are exposed has been estimated at 100,000 square miles. The coal-measures extend westward to the Mongolian frontier, where coal-seams 30 feet thick are known to lie in horizontal plane for 200 miles.
Further, there is evidence that an immense amount of loose parenchymatous tissue, and even of wood, perished by decay, and we do not know to what extent even the most durable tissues may have disappeared in this way; so that, in many coal-seams, we may have only a very small part of the vegetable matter produced."
Below Kakolole, and still at the base of Manyerere mountain, several coal-seams, not noticed on our ascent, were now seen to crop out on the right bank of the Zambesi. Chitora, of Chicova, treated us with his former hospitality. Our men were all much pleased with his kindness, and certainly did not look upon it as a proof of weakness.
Uniting of many Coal-seams into one thick Bed. Purity of the Coal explained. Conversion of Coal into Anthracite. Origin of Clay-ironstone. Marine and brackish-water Strata in Coal. Fossil Insects. Batrachian Reptiles. Labyrinthodont Foot-prints in Coal-measures. Nova Scotia Coal-measures with successive Growths of erect fossil Trees. Similarity of American and European Coal.
Of the 7000 feet of carboniferous strata here found, spread out over an area of 217 square miles, there are on the average eighteen seams of coal. This is only an instance of what is to be found elsewhere. Eighteen coal-seams! what does this mean?
It means that, during carboniferous times, on no less than eighteen occasions, separate and distinct forests have grown on this self-same spot, and that between each of these occasions changes have taken place which have brought it beneath the waters of the ocean, where the sandstones and shales have been formed which divide the coal-seams from each other.
We have to search among the shales and clays and sandstones which enclose the coal-seams, and in these we find petrified specimens which enable us to build up in our mind pictures of the vegetable creation which formed the jungles and forests of these immensely remote ages, and which, densely packed together on the old forest floor of those days, is now apparent to us as coal. Annularia radiata.
That was the only natural fuel on Ullr; there was too much silica on Ullr and not enough of anything else; what would be coal-seams on Terra were strata of silicified wood. And, of course, there was no petroleum.
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