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Updated: May 19, 2025
This refutation is enough as regards spiritualism. Nothing more need be added. Idealism is an exceedingly complex system, varying much with varying authors, very polymorphous, and consequently very difficult to discuss. The ancient hylozoism, the monadism of Leibnitz, and the recent panpsychism of M. Strong are only different forms of the same doctrine.
The first of these views, advocated by Spinoza and held in our own day by Bradley and many other philosophers, is called monism; the second, advocated by Leibniz but not very common nowadays, is called monadism, because each of the isolated things is called a monad.
This maxim is very widespread; it was urged against Newton, and has remained a source of prejudice against "action at a distance." In philosophy it has led to a denial of transient action, and thence to monism or Leibnizian monadism.
Confucius was found particularly attractive, and was regarded as a forerunner of the Enlightenment. The "Monadism" of the philosopher Leibniz was influenced by these reports. The missionaries gained a reputation at court as "scientists", and in this they were of service both to China and to Europe.
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